Leadership Theories and Styles Essay

Know thyself Assuming that no one wants to work on a job that he or she dislikes, a person must have a clear understanding of what path she or he should follow in his or her business life. However, to choose a career is a tricky business, if the chosen career is one that does not suit the person, then their personality is likely to become confused which will lead to unhappiness and a feeling of being burned out. Settling down with the right career can be as central to your happiness as choosing the right person in a relationship. Nevertheless, with any relationship, there is no right or wrong answers, therefore self-assessments can help to find a career that fits his or her personality because everyone is different, and every situation is unique. Self-assessments are tools to help a person to gain a better understand of one’s personality, to increase the chances of becoming successful as well as a better person. According to the scores of the Self-Assessment of Prentice Hall, I am very charismatic, people oriented, well balanced in my trust towards others and I am seen as a trustworthy person. I can also use some improvement on my disciplinary skills as well as on my skills regarding building a leading team. Leadership The interest in leadership has increased during the early part of the twentieth century. Early leadership theories focused on what qualities distinguished leaders and followers, while subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill level. There are several different approaches and theories behind a leader’s behavior, following are some of which describe respective strengths and weakness as the case might be:†¢Traits: Can be consistent with our perception of what leaders are, but this theory ignores the situational context of leadership. †¢Style: What leaders do and how they act, but there is no clear relationship between style and performance outcomes. †¢Situational: The effectiveness of a leader depends on successfully diagnosing where subordinates are on the development continuum and adapting their leadership style as necessary. †¢Contingency: Matching leaders to appropriate situations, however this theory does not explain why individuals are more effective in some situations than others; it also, does not explain what to do if there is a mismatch between the leader and the situation one faces. †¢Path-goal: Uses research on motivation to get organizational goals accomplished. †¢Transformational leadership: Involves values, ethics, goals and long-term goals, but this theory is seen as a personality trait rather than behavior that people can learn. We see that leadership and its theories have been defined in many different ways, but there is no correct definition of how a leader must behave or how a leader can cover all possible situations; what really matters is how useful the definition is for increasing our understanding of effective leadership. Equilibrium should exist in any environment; a balance of behavior and attitude, and the leader should lead by example and moderation. Studies show that â€Å"subordinates perceived their supervisor’s behavior primarily in terms of two broadly defined categories labeled â€Å"consideration† and â€Å"initiating structure† (Yukl, 2006, p. 51), and as suggested by the Fleishman and Harris study, â€Å"subordinates are usually more satisfied with a leader who is at least moderately considerate† (Yukl, 2006, p. 52). Successful and effective leadership â€Å"depends in part on how well a manager resolves role conflicts, copes with demands, recognizes opportunities, and overcomes constraints† (Yukl, 2006, p. 13) but â€Å"the main aim of leadership behavior, however, is to influence organizational members’ actions because it is through the behavior of the members that organizations’ goals are  attained† (Kanungo, 2001). My StyleI agree with Fiedler when he states the â€Å"better the leader-member relations, the more highly structured the job, and the stronger the position power, the more control the leader has† (Robbins & Judge, 2007., p. 410). A leader’s behavior must adjust to reflect the task structure and â€Å"major situational variables include the characteristics of followers, the nature of the work performed by the leader’s unit, the type of organization, and the nature of the external environment† (Yukl, 2006, p. 14). These thoughts make me relate to the situational theory to lead and manage a group, however my style of leadership fits into the participative leadership, where managers will use more group supervision rather than individual supervision. This style suggests that team meetings are there to help facilitate everyone’s cooperation, and the manager’s role is to provide guidance and support toward problem solving. However, use of participation does not imply abdication of responsibilities, and the manager will still be responsible for all decisions and its consecutive results. â€Å"A Participative Leader, rather than taking autocratic decisions, seeks to involve other people in the process, possibly including subordinates, peers, superiors and other stakeholders. Often, however, as it is within the managers’ whim to give or deny control to his or her subordinates, most participative activity is within the immediate team† (Straker,  ¶ 2). Jobs that would fit well my styleI work for Apollo Group in the Information Technology (IT) department, as a Technical Support specialist, and currently do not hold a leadership position. If I have the chance to select a leadership position it would still be in the same area, yet managing projects and groups, where I could both, interact with people, which is one of my strongest skills and as well as work in an area where I do possess a large knowledge. Because I also believe in leading by example, I consider that more than asking or to assign a task, and as a leader can many times show how the work can be done and the rewards for the  dedication and self-motivation you put into the work. In that approach, some of the meetings known in my company as a â€Å"One x One† which would be used to emphasize how the person can improve, to get more knowledge or to further his career within the team or company, instead of the sole pursuit of correcting behavior. I also think that you can keep a good and healthy environment when you see in your leader the disposition to keep moving forward with an open approach, even when the situation is stressful. Projects, when used right, are considered motivating and helpful in order to keep people engaged. In this scenario, I would choose people who are willing to embrace new experiences quite often and, who, would accept the changes and innovations of the technological field, which by its own nature is a constant. What for me is the great part of this process, is that people can manage themselves once you set clear goals and can keep up with metrics, allowing each individual to have more freedom in the work environment. I could focus on â€Å"organizing, supporting and developing the people† (Luis,  ¶ 15) in the leader’s team position, without forgetting, or also balancing with another style which I need to improve, which is a more task oriented leader. References Luis, M. J. (). Leadership styles Using the right one for your situation. Mind Tools. Retrieved from http://www.mindtools.com/Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. A. (2007.). Organizational Behavior. : Prentice Hall. Rabindra N Kanungo. (2001). Ethical values of transactional and transformational leaders. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, 18(4), 257-265. Retrieved May 25, 2009, from ABI/INFORM Global database. (Document ID: 109746613). Straker, D. (). Participative Leadership. Changing Minds.org . Retrieved from http://changingminds.orgYukl, G. (2006). Leadership in Organizations (6th ed.). : Pearson Prentice Hall.

Destiny and Henley Essay

â€Å"Invictus† was written by Henley when he was in the hospital with tuberculosis. While in his twenties he contracted a tubercular infection that led to his leg being amputated below the knee. Later he developed the same infection in his other leg and was told it would have to be removed as well. Henley refused to have it amputated and sought the help of a doctor who had developed antiseptic medicine. Twenty months later Henley had finally recovered and was able to leave the hospital. It was during this dark time in his life when he wrote â€Å"Invictus†. When you read the poem you can see how passionate he felt: â€Å"I thank whatever gods may be / For my unconquerable soul†(Henley). Instead of falling into despair, Henley was able to be thankful that, though his body was beaten, his soul wasn’t. Even in the highest of his horrible circumstances, Henley refused to let life defeat him, but instead he rose up and fought back: â€Å"In the fell clutch of circumstance / I have not winced nor cried aloud† (Henley). He did not waste his time despairing over what he had lost, but instead focused on getting better. You can also see how desperately determined he was: â€Å"I am the master of my fate / I am the captain of my soul† (Henley). He refused to give into the idea that someone else was in control of his life. In the poem he cites â€Å"the bludgeonings of chance,† which shows he felt it was simply fate that this happened to him, and yet he went on to defiantly state that he was in control of his own destiny (Henley). By looking closely at â€Å"Invictus†, you can clearly see the struggles that Henley went through in his own life. The powerful tone in â€Å"Invictus† is gloomy and dark although Henley remains optimistic and with the help of the three types of figurative language the dark tone is constantly seen throughout the poem helping readers truly feel the misery the author is going through . Invictus could be taken as a hopeful poem for those suffering, constantly being reminded that you are the â€Å"Captain of your soul† and that it is you choosing to live in pain or be brave when facing a challenge. â€Å"Beyond this place of wrath and tears† refers that the writer has hope for the after life. Finds, and shall find, me unafraid† refers to the fearlessness of the writer â€Å"My head is bloody, but unbowed. † refers to his courage to fight. The use of imagery in â€Å"Invictus† provides readers with deeper sense of the poem and connects them to the author’s true feelings. Henley uses strong relevant adjectives to paint a picture of the horrors of misery he feels in the beginning and towards the end of the poem he allows readers to grasp that it was his bravery that helped him overcome the impossible. The theme of â€Å"Invictus†is one that appeals to most people. It is the idea that you control your fate more than anyone else ever will. In a world that cares nothing for us and often seems to be trying to destroy us, we can overcome all odds and be victorious because we, and we alone, are masters of our own fate. This is proven through the circumstances that the poem was written under. Instead of submitting to the original prognosis of the doctors and having his other leg removed, Henley chose to take charge of his life, find a new doctor, and ultimately change the course of his life (Invictus: A Study Guide). The theme is one of triumph and survival. Despite all odds, despite all expectations, Henley took control of his destiny and came out victorious. The fact that Henley wrote this during a dark time in his life added a wealth of emotion to the poem; he was writing from his heart and it was obvious. The overarching theme of the poem is relevant to everyone because when it comes down to it, we all want to feel like our life actually has meaning and is not just a sum of chance circumstances and happenings. The use of imagery in â€Å"Invictus† provides readers with deeper sense of the poem and connects them to the author’s true feelings. Henley uses strong relevant adjectives to paint a picture of the horrors of misery he feels in the beginning and towards the end of the poem he allows readers to grasp that it was his bravery that helped him overcome the impossible.

Exxon Mobil and Environment

Author Login Encyclopedia of Earth Search Top of Form [pic][pic] Bottom of Form †¢ Earthportal †¢ Earthnews †¢ Encyclopedia of Earth †¢ Forum EoE Pages o Home o About the EoE o Editorial Board o International Advisory Board o FAQs o EoE for Educators o Contribute to the EoE o Support the EoE o Contact the EoE o Find Us Here o RSS o Reviews o Awards and Honors †¢ [pic] Solutions Journal [pic] Browse the EoE o Titles (A-Z) o Author o Topics o Topic Editor o Content Partners o Content Sources o eBooks o Environmental Classics o Collections †¢ [pic] †¢ [pic] †¢ [pic] Exxon Valdez oil spill Table of Contents | |1 Introduction | |2 Events leading up to the spill | |3 The behavior of the oil | |4 Countermeasures and Mitigation | |4. 1 Control of the oil spill at sea | |4. 2 Shoreline treatment | |5 Economic impacts | |6 How much oil remains? |7 Ecosystem response to the spill | |7. 1 Acute Mortality | |7. 2 Long-term impacts | |7. 3 State of recove ry | |8 Legal responsibility of ExxonMobil | |8. 1 Criminal Settlement | |8. 1. 1 Plea Agreement | |8. 1. Criminal Restitution | |8. 2 Civil Settlement | |9 The response of ExxonMobil | |10 Lessons learned from the spill | |11 Further Reading | | | |[pic] | [pic] Contributing Author: Cutler J.Cleveland (other articles) Content Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (other articles) Article Topics: Pollution and Energy This article has been reviewed and approved by the following Topic Editor: Peter Saundry (other articles) Last Updated: August 26, 2008 [pic] Introduction On March 24, 1989, the tanker Exxon Valdez, en route from Valdez, Alaska to Los Angeles, California, ran aground on Bligh Reef in Prince William Sound, Alaska. The vessel was traveling outside normal shipping lanes in an attempt to avoid ice.Within six hours of the grounding, the Exxon Valdez spilled approximately 10. 9 million gallons of its 53 million gallon cargo of Prudhoe Bay crude oil. Eight of the eleven tanks on board were damaged. The oil would eventually impact over 1,100 miles of non-continuous coastline in Alaska, making the Exxon Valdez the largest oil spill to date in U. S. waters. The response to the Exxon Valdez involved more personnel and equipment over a longer period of time than did any other spill in U. S. history.Logistical problems in providing fuel, meals, berthing, response equipment, waste management and other resources were one of the largest challenges to response management. At the height of the response, more than 11,000 personnel, 1,400 vessels and 85 aircraft were involved in the cleanup. [pic] [pic] The Exxon Valdez aground on Bligh Reef. (Source: NOAA) Shoreline cleanup began in April of 1989 and continued until September of 1989 for the first year of the response. The response effort continued in 990 and 1991 with cleanup in the summer months, and limited shoreline monitoring in the winter months. Fate and effects monitoring by state and Fed eral agencies are ongoing. The images that the world saw on television and descriptions they heard on the radio that spring were of heavily oiled shorelines, dead and dying wildlife, and thousands of workers mobilized to clean beaches. These images reflected what many people felt was a severe environmental insult to a relatively pristine, ecologically important area that was home to many species of wildlife endangered elsewhere.In the weeks and months that followed, the oil spread over a wide area in Prince William Sound and beyond, resulting in an unprecedented response and cleanup—in fact, the largest oil spill cleanup ever mobilized. Many local, state, federal, and private agencies and groups took part in the effort. Even today, scientists continue to study the affected shorelines to understand how an ecosystem like Prince William Sound responds to, and recovers from, an incident like the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Events leading up to the spillThe Exxon Valdez departed from the Trans Alaska Pipeline terminal at 9:12 pm, March 23, 1989. William Murphy, an expert ship's pilot hired to maneuver the 986-foot vessel through the Valdez Narrows, was in control of the wheelhouse. At his side was the captain of the vessel, Joe Hazelwood. Helmsman Harry Claar was steering. After passing through Valdez Narrows, pilot Murphy left the vessel and Captain Hazelwood took over the wheelhouse. The Exxon Valdez encountered icebergs in the shipping lanes and Captain Hazelwood ordered Claar to take the Exxon Valdez out of the shipping lanes to go around the ice.He then handed over control of the wheelhouse to Third Mate Gregory Cousins with precise instructions to turn back into the shipping lanes when the tanker reached a certain point. At that time, Claar was replaced by Helmsman Robert Kagan. For reasons that remain unclear, Cousins and Kagan failed to make the turn back into the shipping lanes and the ship ran aground on Bligh Reef at 12:04 a. m. , March 24, 1989. Capt ain Hazelwood was in his quarters at the time.The National Transportation Safety Board investigated the accident and determined five probable causes of the grounding: (1) The third mate failed to properly maneuver the vessel, possibly due to fatigue and excessive workload; (2) the master failed to provide a proper navigation watch, possibly due to impairment from alcohol; (3) Exxon Shipping Company failed to supervise the master and provide a rested and sufficient crew for the Exxon Valdez; (4) the U. S. Coast Guard failed to provide an effective vessel traffic system; and (5) effective pilot and escort services were lacking.The behavior of the oil [pic] [pic] The oil slick (blue areas) eventually extended 470 miles southwest from Bligh Reef. The spill area eventually totaled 11,000 square miles. (Source: Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council) Prudhoe Bay crude oil has an API gravity of 27. 0, and a pour point of 0 degrees Celcius. The bulk of the oil spilled from the Exxon Valdez was released within 6 hours of the ship's grounding. The general trend of the oil was south and west from the point of origin. For the first few days after the spill, most of the oil was in a large concentrated patch near Bligh Island.On March 26, a storm, which generated winds of over 70 mph in Prince William Sound, weathered much of the oil, changing it into mousse and tarballs, and distributed it over a large area. By March 30, the oil extended 90 miles from the spill site. Ultimately, from Bligh Reef, the spill stretched 470 miles southwest to the village of Chignik on the Alaska Peninsula. Approximately 1,300 miles of shoreline were oiled. 200 miles were heavily or moderately oiled (obvious impact); 1,100 miles were lightly or very lightly oiled (light sheen or occasional tarballs). The spill region contains more than 9,000 miles of shoreline.In addition to the storm of March 26, the spill occurred at a time of year when the spring tidal fluctuations were nearly 18 feet. This t ended to deposit the oil onto shorelines above the normal zone of wave action. The diversity in shoreline types in the affected areas led to varied oiling conditions. In some cases, oil was present on sheer rock faces making access and cleanup difficult, or rocky beaches with grain size anywhere from coarse sand to boulders, where the oil could percolate to a sub-surface level. The spill affected both sheltered and exposed (to high wave/weather action) shorelines.Once oil landed on a shoreline it could be floated off at the next high tide, carried to and deposited in a different location, making the tracking of oil migration and shoreline impact very difficult. This migration ended by mid-summer 1989, and the remaining cleanup dealt with oiled shorelines, rather than oil in the water. Cleanup operations continued during the summer months of 1990 and 1991. By 1990, surface oil, where it existed, had become significantly weathered. Sub-surface oil, on the other hand, was in many cases much less weathered and still in a liquid state. The liquid sub-surface oil could give off a sheen when disturbed.Cleanup in 1991 concentrated on the remaining reduced quantities of surface and sub-surface oil. Countermeasures and Mitigation Control of the oil spill at sea The Alyeska Pipeline Service Company was immediately notified of the incident and sent a tug to the site to assist in stabilizing the vessel. At the time of the incident, the Alyeska spill response barge was out of service being re-outfitted. It arrived on scene by 1500 on 24 March. Alyeska was overwhelmed by the magnitude of the incident; by March 25, Exxon had assumed full responsibility for the spill and cleanup effort. [pic] [pic] The Exxon Valdez surrounded by a containment boom. Source: Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council) Deployment of boom around the vessel was complete within 35 hours of the grounding. Exxon conducted successful dispersant test applications on March 25 and 26 and was granted permissio n on March 26 to apply dispersants to the oil slick. Due to the large storm that began the evening of March 26, much of the oil turned into mousse. As dispersants aren't generally able to dissipate oil in the form of mousse, it was no longer practical to use dispersants on floating oil during this response. On the evening of March 25, a test in-situ burn of oil on water was conducted.Approximately 15,000 to 30,000 gallons of oil were collected using 3M Fire Boom towed behind two fishing vessels in a U-shaped configuration, and ignited. The oil burned for a total of 75 minutes and was reduced to approximately 300 gallons of residue that could be collected easily. It was estimated that the efficiency of this test burn was 98 percent or better. Again, continued in-situ burning was not possible because of the change in the oil's state after the storm of March 26. Five dispersant trials took place between March 25 and March 28, but by March 29 the Regional Response Team (RRT) decided tha t dispersants were no longer feasible.Because there was not enough equipment to protect all the shorelines that could be impacted, Federal, state and local agencies collaborated to establish shoreline protection priorities. The agencies decided that fish hatcheries and salmon streams had the highest priority; accordingly, containment booms were deployed to protect these areas. Five fish hatcheries in Prince William Sound and two in the Gulf of Alaska were boomed, with the largest amount of boom deployed at the Sawmill Bay hatchery in Prince William Sound.At the height of containment efforts, it is estimated that a total of 100 miles of boom was deployed. Almost all the types of boom available on the market were used and tested during the spill response. Due to the size of the spill, it was necessary to employ inexperienced workers to deploy and tend booms, and this led to some boom being incorrectly used or handled, and sometimes damaged. Some boom sank because of improper deploymen t, infrequent tending, or leakage and/or inadequacy in the buoyancy system. Other problems included fabric tears in boom due to debris, and tearing at anchorage points from wave action.In some cases, ballast chains were ripped off during boom recovery if the boom was lifted by the chain. One estimate suggests that 50 percent of the damage to larger boom came during boom recovery. For self-inflating booms, it was important to keep the inflation valves above the water during deployment so that the boom did not become filled with water and have to be replaced. Aerial surveillance was used to direct the deployment of booms and skimmers for open water oil recovery. Visual overflight observations as well as ultraviolet/infrared (UV/IR) surveys were used by the USCG and Exxon to track the floating oil.Satellite imagery was also tested as a method to track oil but was not very useful because of the infrequency of satellite passes over Prince William Sound (every 7 to 8 days), cloud cover, a nd lengthy turn around time for results. The primary means of open water oil recovery was with skimmers. In general, most skimmers became less effective once the oil had spread, emulsified and mixed with debris. To save time, it was most practical to keep skimmer offloading equipment and oil storage barges near the skimmers. The most used skimmers during the response were the Marco sorbent lifting-belt skimmers that were supplied by the U.S. Navy. Once oil became viscous, the sorbent part of the skimmer was removed and the conveyor belt alone was sufficient to pull the oil up the ramp. The pump that came with the skimmer had difficulty offloading viscous oil, so that other vacuum equipment was used to unload the collected oil. The Marco skimmers were generally not used close to shore because they draw between three and four feet. In general, the paddle belt and rope mop skimmers were the most useful for recovery of oil from the shoreline. The skimmers were placed on self-propelled b arges with a shallow draft.Sorbents were used to recover oil in cases where mechanical means were less practical. The drawback to sorbents was that they were labor intensive and generated additional solid waste. Sorbent boom was used to collect sheen between primary and secondary layers of offshore boom, and to collect sheen released from the beach during tidal flooding. Pompoms were useful for picking up small amounts of weathered oil. Towing of sorbent boom in a zigzag or circular fashion behind a boat was used to collect oil and was more efficient than towing the boom in a straight line.Sorbent booms made of rolled pads were more effective than booms made of individual particles because these absorbed less water and were stronger, and did not break into many small particles if they came apart. Early on in the response, storage space for recovered oil was in short supply. To combat the storage space problem, water was decanted from skimmers or tanks into a boomed area before offlo ading. As a result, the remaining viscous oil mixture was difficult to offload, the process sometimes taking up to 6 to 8 hours. High-capacity skimmer offloading pumps, in particular grain pumps, were the most useful in transferring viscous oil.The oil remaining on the Exxon Valdez, was completely offloaded by the end of the first week in April 1989. After offloading operations were completed, the tanker was towed to a location 25 miles from Naked Island in Prince William Sound for temporary repairs. Later in the summer of 1989, the vessel was brought to California for further repairs. Shoreline treatment Shoreline assessment was a prerequisite for the implementation of any beach cleanup. Assessment provided geomorphological, biological, archaeological and oiling information that was used for the development of site specific treatment strategies.Cleanup operations were scheduled around specific activities such as seal haulout activity, seal pupping, eagle nesting, fish spawning, fis hing seasons, and other significant events as much as possible. [pic] [pic] Shoreline treatment from the Exxon Valdez spill. (Source: Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council) In 1989, hoses spraying seawater were used to flush oil from shorelines. The released oil was then trapped with offshore boom, and removed using skimmers, vacuum trucks (useful for thick layers of oil) and boom (sorbent, snare, pompoms).For hard to reach areas, or locations with weathered oil, heated seawater was used to flush oil from the shoreline. Converted vessels and barges were used for beach washing operations. It would take several days to outfit a conventional barge with the equipment needed to heat and pump the water. Smaller vessels that were used for beach washing early in the spill were re-outfitted for bioremediation later in the response. Along with the large-scale beach washing, manual cleanup, raking and tilling the beaches, oily debris pickup, enhanced bioremediation and spot washing were used to cleanup the oil.In some locations, oil was thick enough to be picked up with shovels and buckets. In addition, mechanical methods were used on a few sites, including the use of bulldozers to relocate or remove the contaminated beach surfaces. Mechanical rock washing machines, which were manufactured for the spill, were not used to clean contaminated rocks and return them to the beach. Oiled storm berm was mechanically relocated in some cases so that these areas, which normally would not receive much wave action, would be more exposed and cleaned by natural processes.If the oiling in the berm was significant or persistent it was tilled to free the oil or washed to optimize the cleaning. Recommendations were made to restrict the movement of berm to the upper third of the beach to ensure its return to the original location. [pic] [pic] Beach washing. (Source: Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council) Beach applications of dispersants were tried in several locations. Corexit 7664 was a pplied on Ingot Island, followed by a warm water wash. No significant change in oil cover or the physical state of the oil was observed as a result of the treatment. Some ecological impacts were observed in the treated areas.It appeared that the effects were largely due to the intensive washing more than to the use of Corexit 7664, and were evident in intertidal epibenthic macrobiota. In addition, the dispersant BP1100X was applied to a test area on Knight Island. Toxicology studies indicated that the upper and lower intertidal biota were different from pre-application communities the day after dispersant application, and returned to pre-treatment levels after seven days. In May of 1989, the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Exxon conducted bioremediation trials at two test sites on Knight Island in Prince William Sound.On the basis of these tests and other trials later in the summer, Exxon recommended the use of the bioremediation enhancement agents, Inipol (Inipol EA P22—manufactured by Elf Aquitaine of France) and Customblen (Customblen 28-8-0 —manufactured by Sierra Chemicals of California), and subsequently treated over 70 miles of shoreline in Prince William Sound with these agents. Winter monitoring of the effects of bioremediation consisted of surveys of more than 20 beaches in Prince William Sound and the Gulf of Alaska.These studies determined that oil degradation had been enhanced on the shorelines monitored, but some debate existed over whether bioremediation was solely, or even largely, responsible. Cleanup operations in 1989 ceased by the end of September. All parties involved in the response agreed that continuation of cleanup into the Alaskan winter would jeopardize the safety of cleanup crews. In addition, it was speculated that the winter storms in Alaska could significantly remove oil from shorelines, including sub-surface oil.By the end of the 1989 cleanup, more than 25,000 tons of oiled waste and several hundred thousand barrels of oil/liquid waste were collected and disposed of in landfills. Cleanup in 1990 began in April and ended in September. Surveys in the spring of 1990 showed that oiling conditions had been reduced or changed over the winter. Surface oil in 1990 was significantly weathered but sub-surface oil was relatively fresh in some locations. Cleanup techniques in 1990 focused more on manual methods of treatment such as hand wiping and spot washing as well as bioremediation.Mechanical equipment was used on a few sites. Bioremediation was more extensive in 1990, with 378 of the 587 shoreline segments treated that year receiving bioremediation application. In general, Inipol was applied in cases where surface oiling existed and Customblen slow release pellets were preferred for treating beaches with sub-surface oiling. Generally, beaches were given one to three treatments over several months. Concern over the possible toxicity of Inipol led to recommendations for application of o nly Customblen on some sites.By the spring of 1991, the scope of the cleanup effort was greatly reduced. Manual cleanup, bioremediation, and very limited use of mechanical equipment were employed. Cleanup took place from May of 1991 through July of 1991. An important observation that resulted from the Exxon Valdez oil spill was that natural cleaning processes, on both sheltered and exposed beaches, were in many cases very effective at degrading oil. It took longer for some sections of shoreline to recover from some of the invasive cleaning methods (hot water flushing in particular) than from the oiling itself.Economic impacts The State of Alaska funded a several studies of the short term economic impact of the Exxon Valdez oil spill. [pic] [pic] Recreational fishing in Alaska. (Source: Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council) 1. Recreational Sport Fishing Losses. This loss was estimated based on the impacts of the spill on sport fishing activity. One must consider the impact on the n umber of anglers, the number of sport fishing trips, the areas fished, the species fished for, and the length of these trips.For 1989 the loss was estimated to be between $0 and $580 million dollars; for 1990 the range was $3. 6 million $50. 5 million dollars. 2. Tourism Losses. The spill caused both negative and positive effects. The major negative effects were: 1. Decreased resident and non-resident vacation/pleasure visitor traffic in the spill-affected areas due to lack of available visitor services (accommodations, charter boats, air taxis). 2. Severe labor shortage in the visitor industry throughout the state due to traditional service industry workers seeking high-paying spill clean-up jobs. 3.Fifty-nine percent of businesses in the most affected areas reported spill-related cancellations and 16% reported business was less than expected due to the spill. The principle positive impact was strong spill-related business in some areas and in certain businesses such as hotels, tax is, car/RV rentals and boat charters. 1. Existence value. Economists tried to estimate the damage to so-called non-use or existence value of the Prince William Sound region in the wake of the spill. This is an attempt top measure what cannot be observed in the market: the value to the public of a pristine Prince William Sound.They estimated existence value using contingent valuation, a survey approach designed to create the missing market for public goods by determining what people would be willing to pay (WTP) for specified changes in the quantity or quality of such goods or, more rarely, what they would be willing to accept (WTA) in compensation for well-specified degradations in the provision of these goods. The results suggest an aggrragete loss of $4. 9 to $7. 2 billion dollars. In effect, these amounts reflect the public's willingness to pay to prevent another Exxon Valdez type oil spill given the scenario posed. . Replacement costs of birds and mammals. These costs include th e relocation, replacement and rehabilitation for some of the shorebirds, seabirds and the marine and terrestrial mammals that may have suffered injury or were destroyed in the Exxon Valdez oil spill. The values range from $20,000 to $300,000 dollars per marine mammal (sea otters, whales, seal lions, seals), $125 to $500 dollars per terrestrial animal (bears, river otters, mink, deer), and $170 to $6,000 dollars for seabirds and eagles. How much oil remains?Based on the areas that were studied in the aftermath of the spill, scientists made estimates of the ultimate fate of the oil. A 2001 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) study surveyed 96 sites along 8,000 miles of coastline. [pic] [pic] A pit dug on a Prince William Sound beach in 2001 revealing oil in the sediments. (Source: NOAA) The survey distinguished between surface and buried oil. Buried or subsurface oil is of greater concern than surface oil. Subsurface oil can remain dormant for many years before bein g dispersed and is more liquid, still toxic, and may become biologically available.A disturbance event such as burrowing animals or a severe storm reworks the beach and can reintroduce unweathered oil into the water. Results of the summer shoreline survey showed that the oil remaining on the surface of beaches in Prince William Sound is weathered and mostly hardened into an asphalt-like layer. The toxic components of this type of surface oil are not as readily available to biota, although some softer forms do cause sheens in tide pools. The survey indicates a total area of approximately 20 acres of shoreline in Prince William Sound are still contaminated with oil.Oil was found at 58 percent of the 91 sites assessed and is estimated to have the linear equivalent of 5. 8 km of contaminated shoreline. In addition to the estimated area of remaining oiled beach, several other important points were evident: 1. Surface oil was determined to be not a good indicator of subsurface oil. 2. Twe nty subsurface pits were classified as heavily oiled. Oil saturated all of the interstitial spaces and was extremely repugnant. These â€Å"worst case† pits exhibited an oil mixture that resembled oil encountered in 1989 a few weeks after the spill—highly odiferous, lightly weathered, and very fluid. 3.Subsurface oil was also found at a lower tide height than expected (between 0 and 6 feet), in contrast to the surface oil, which was found mostly at the highest levels of the beach. This is significant, because the pits with the most oil were found low in the intertidal zone, closest to the zone of biological production, and indicate that the survey estimates are conservative at best. Ecosystem response to the spill Recovery is a very difficult term to define and measure for a complex ecosystem such as Prince William Sound. If you ask a fisherman from Kodiak Island, a villager from the town of Valdez, an Exxon engineer, or a NOAA iologist, you are likely to receive such different answers that you may wonder if they heard the same question. In particular, disagreements exist between Exxon and government-funded scientists, and unknowns persist, especially in understanding how multiple processes combine to drive observed dynamics. Despite this, there are some things known with a high degree of certainty: oil persisted beyond a decade in surprising amounts and in toxic forms, was sufficiently bioavailable to induce chronic biological exposures, and had long-term impacts at the population level.Three major pathways of long-term impacts emerge: (1) chronic persistence of oil, biological exposures, and population impacts to species closely associated with shallow sediments; (2) delayed population impacts of sublethal doses compromising health, growth, and reproduction; and (3) indirect effects of trophic and interaction cascades, all of which transmit impacts well beyond the acute-phase mortality. Acute Mortality [pic] [pic] Sea birds killed by the Exxon Valdez oil spill. (Source: NOAA) Marine mammals and seabirds are at great risk from floating oil because they have routine contact with the sea surface.Oiling of fur or feathers causes loss of insulating capacity and can lead to death from hypothermia, smothering, drowning, and ingestion of toxic hydrocabons. Scientists estimate mass mortalities of 1000 to 2800 sea otters, 302 harbor seals, and unprecedented numbers of seabird deaths estimated at 250,000 in the days immediately after the oil spill. Mass mortality also occurred among macroalgae and benthic invertebrates on oiled shores from a combination of chemical toxicity, smothering, and physical displacement from the habitat by pressurized wash-water applied after the spill.Long-term impacts The persistent nature of oil in sediments produce chronic, long-term exposure risks from some species. For example, chronic exposures for years after the spill to oil persisting in sedimentary refuges were evident from biomarkers in fish, se a otters, and seaducks intimately associated with sediments for egg laying or foraging. These chronic exposures enhanced mortality for years. Indirect effects can be as important as direct exposure.Cascading indirect effects are delayed in operation because they are mediated through changes in an intermediary. Perhaps the two generally most influential types of indirect interactions are: (1) trophic cascades in which predators reduce abundance of their prey, which in turn releases the prey’s food species from control; and (2) provision of biogenic habitat by organisms that serve as or create important physical structure in the environment. [pic] [pic] A healthy stand of rockweed (Fucus gardneri) growing on a boulder in Prince William Sound. Source: NOAA) Scientists have found that indirect interactions lengthened the recovery process on rocky shorelines for a decade or more. Dramatic initial loss of cover by the most important biogenic habitat provider, the rockweed Fucus gar dneri, triggered a cascade of indirect impacts. Freeing of space on the rocks and the losses of important grazing (limpets and periwinkles) and predatory (whelks) gastropods combined to promote initial blooms of ephemeral green algae in 1989 and 1990 and an opportunistic barnacle, Chthamalus dalli, in 1991.Absence of structural algal canopy led to declines in associated invertebrates and inhibited recovery of Fucus itself, whose recruits avoid desiccation under the protective cover of the adult plants. Those Fucus plants that subsequently settled on tests of Chthamalus dalli became dislodged during storms because of the structural instability of the attachment of this opportunistic barnacle. After apparent recovery of Fucus, previously oiled shores exhibited another mass rockweed mortality in 1994, a cyclic instability probably caused by simultaneous senility of a single-aged stand.The importance of indirect interactions in rocky shore communities is well established, and the genera l sequence of succession on rocky intertidal shores extending over a decade after the Exxon Valdez oil spill closely resembles the dynamics after the Torrey Canyon oil spill in the UK. State of recovery The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council published a study in 2004 to assess the state of the resources injured by the spill. Fifteen years after the Exxon Valdez oil spill, it is clear that some fish and wildlife species injured by the spill have not fully recovered.It is less clear, however, what role oil plays in the inability of some populations to bounce back. An ecosystem is dynamic — ever changing — and continues its natural cycles and fluctuations at the same time that it struggles with the impacts of spilled oil. As time passes, separating natural change from oil-spill impacts becomes more and more difficult. The Trustee Council recognizes 30 resources or species as injured by the spill. Depending on their status as of 2002, these have been placed in one of f ive categories: Not RecoveringThese resources are showing little or no clear improvement since spill injuries occurred: Common loon Cormorants (3 species), Harbor seal, Harlequin duck, Pacific herring, Pigeon guillemot Recovery unknown Limited data on life history or extent of injury is available. Current research is either inconclusive or not complete: Cutthroat trout, Dolly Varden, Kittlitz’s murrelet, Rockfish Subtidal communities [pic] [pic] Sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka). (Source: NOAA) Recovered Recovery objectives have been met: Archaeological resources, Bald eagle, Black oystercatcher, Common murre, Pink salmon, River otter, Sockeye salmon RecoveringClams, Wilderness Areas, Intertidal communities, Killer whale (AB pod), Marbled murrelet, Mussels, Sea otter, Sediments Human uses Human services that depend on natural resources were also injured by the spill. These services are each categorized as â€Å"recovering† until the resources they depend on are fully recovered: Commercial fishing, Passive use, Recreation and tourism, Subsistence Prior to the Exxon Valdez oil spill, there was no baseline date available for the abundant number of species existing in Prince William Sound.Because of this lack of data, numbers of oil spill-related casualties and recovery rates have been difficult to determine. Legal responsibility of ExxonMobil The settlement among the State of Alaska, the U. S. government and Exxon was approved by the U. S. District Court on Oct. 9, 1991. It resolved various criminal charges against Exxon as well as civil claims brought by the federal and state governments for recovery of natural resource damages resulting from the oil spill.The settlement was comprised of criminal and civil settlements with Exxon, as well as a civil settlement with Alyeska Pipeline Service Company. Criminal Settlement Plea Agreement Exxon was fined $150 million, the largest fine ever imposed for an environmental crime. The court forgave $125 milli on of that fine in recognition of Exxon's cooperation in cleaning up the spill and paying certain private claims. Of the remaining $25 million, $12 million went to the North American Wetlands Conservation Fund and $13 million went to the national Victims of Crime Fund.Criminal Restitution As restitution for the injuries caused to the fish, wildlife, and lands of the spill region, Exxon agreed to pay $100 million. This money was divided evenly between the federal and state governments. Civil Settlement Exxon agreed to pay $900 million in ten annual installments. The final payment was received in Sept. 2001. The settlement contains a â€Å"reopener window† between Sept. 1, 2002 and Sept. 1, 2006, during which the state and federal governments may make a claim for up to an additional $100 million.The funds must be used to restore resources that suffered a substantial loss or decline as a result of the oil spill, the injuries to which could not have been known or anticipated by t he six trustees from any information in their possession or reasonably available to any of them at the time of the settlement (Sept. 25, 1991). The response of ExxonMobil [pic] [pic] Exxon logo. ExxonMobil acknowledged that the Exxon Valdez oil spill was a tragic accident that the company deeply regrets. Exxon notes that company took immediate responsibility for the spill, cleaned it up, and voluntarily compensated those who claimed direct damages.ExxonMobil paid $300 million immediately and voluntarily to more than 11,000 Alaskans and businesses affected by the Valdez spill. In addition, the company paid $2. 2 billion on the cleanup of Prince William Sound, staying with the cleanup from 1989 to 1992, when the State of Alaska and the U. S. Coast Guard declared the cleanup complete. And, as noted above, ExxonMobil also has paid $1 billion in settlements with the state and federal governments. That money is being used for environmental studies and conservation programs for Prince Will iam Sound.ExxonMobil hired its own scientists to study the impacts of the spill, and they come to different conclusions than many of the results published by government agencies and peer-reviewed academic journals. Exxon's scientists acknowledge the lingering pockets of oil in the sediments, but they argue that they do not pose a serious risk. It is their position that that there are now no species in Prince William Sound in trouble due to the impact of the 1989 oil spill, and that the data strongly support the position of a fully recovered Prince William Sound ecosystem.Lessons learned from the spill The scientists who monitored the oiled parts of Prince William Sound wanted to study the shoreline’s ecological recovery after an environmental disaster like the Exxon Valdez spill, and then use those lessons to better respond to future oil spills. Right now, their task is still incomplete. However, some of their findings have changed the way they think about cleaning up oil spi lls, and about how ecosystems respond to such disturbances. Following are some examples of what they have learned: 1.Clean-up attempts can be more damaging than the oil itself, with impacts recurring as long as clean-up (including both chemical and physical methods) continues. Because of the pervasiveness of strong biological interactions in rocky intertidal and kelp forest communities, cascades of delayed, indirect impacts (especially of trophic cascades and biogenic habitat loss) expand the scope of injury well beyond the initial direct losses and thereby also delay recoveries. 2.Oil that penetrates deeply into beaches can remain relatively fresh for years and can later come back to the surface and affect nearby animals. In addition, oil degrades at varying rates depending on environment, with subsurface sediments physically protected from disturbance, oxygenation, and photolysis retaining contamination by only partially weathered oil for years. 3. Rocky rubble shores should be of high priority for protection and cleanup because oil tends to penetrate deep and weather very slowly in these habitats, prolonging the harmful effects of the oil when it leaches out. . Oil effects to sea birds and mammals also are substantial (independent of means of insulation) over the long-term through interactions between natural environmental stressors and compromised health of exposed animals, through chronic toxic exposure from ingesting contaminated prey or during foraging around persistent sedimentary pools of oil, and through disruption of vital social functions (caregiving or reproduction) in socially organized species. 5.Long-term exposure of fish embryos to weathered oil at parts per billion (ppb) concentrations has population consequences through indirect effects on growth, deformities, and behavior with long-term consequences on mortality and reproduction. The Exxon Valdez also triggered major improvements in oil spill prevention and response planning. 1. The U. S. C oast Guard now monitors fully-laden tankers via satellite as they pass through Valdez Narrows, cruise by Bligh Island, and exit Prince William Sound at Hinchinbrook Entrance. In 1989, the Coast Guard watched the tankers only through Valdez Narrows and Valdez Arm. . Two escort vessels accompany each tanker while passing through the entire Sound. They not only watch over the tankers, but are capable of assisting them in the event of an emergency, such as a loss of power or loss of rudder control. Fifteen years ago, there was only one escort vessel through Valdez Narrows. 3. Specially trained marine pilots, with considerable experience in Prince William Sound, board tankers from their new pilot station at Bligh Reef and are aboard the ship for 25 miles out of the 70-mile transit through the Sound.Weather criteria for safe navigation are firmly established. 4. Congress enacted legislation requiring that all tankers in Prince William Sound be double-hulled by the year 2015. It is estimat ed that if the Exxon Valdez had had a double-hull structure, the amount of the spill would have been reduced by more than half. There are presently three double-hulled and twelve double-bottomed tankers moving oil through Prince William Sound. Two more Endeavor class tankers are under construction by ConocoPhillips, their expected induction into service is 2004 and 2005. . Contingency planning for oil spills in Prince William Sound must now include a scenario for a spill of 12. 6 million gallons. Drills are held in the Sound each year. 6. The combined ability of skimming systems to remove oil from the water is now 10 times greater than it was in 1989, with equipment in place capable of recovering over 300,000 barrels of oil in 72 hours. 7. Even if oil could have been skimmed up in 1989, there was no place to put the oil-water mix. Today, seven barges are available with a capacity to hold 818,000 barrels of recovered oil. . There are now 40 miles of containment boom in Prince William Sound, seven times the amount available at the time of the Exxon Valdez spill. 9. Dispersants are now stockpiled for use and systems are in place to apply them from helicopters, airplanes, and boats. Further Reading †¢ Alaska Fisheries Science Center, NOAA. The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill: How Much Oil Remains? †¢ Alaska Oil Spill Commission. 1990. Spill, the wreck of the Exxon Valdez: implications for safe transportation of oil (Final report). Juneau, AK. †¢ National Transportation Safety Board. 1990.Marine Accident Report: Grounding of the U. S. Tankship Exxon Valdez: on Bligh Reef, Prince William Sound, near Valdez, Alaska, March 24, 1989. Washington, D. C. : NTSB. NTSB/MAR-90/04. 255 p. †¢ Peterson, Charles H. , Stanley D. Rice, Jeffrey W. Short, Daniel Esler, James L. Bodkin, Brenda E. Ballachey, David B. Irons. 2003. Long-Term Ecosystem Response to the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill. Science 302: 2082-2086. |Disclaimer: This article is taken wholly from, or contains in formation that was originally published by, the | |National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.Topic editors and authors for the Encyclopedia of Earth may have | |edited its content or added new information. The use of information from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric | |Administration should not be construed as support for or endorsement by that organization for any new information | |added by EoE personnel, or for any editing of the original content. | Citation Cleveland, Cutler (Contributing Author); National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (Content source); Peter Saundry (Topic Editor). 2008. Exxon Valdez oil spill. † In: Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland (Washington, D. C. : Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment). [First published in the Encyclopedia of Earth August 17, 2006; Last revised August 26, 2008; Retrieved March 28, 2010]. Editing this Article We invite all scientists, environmental prof essionals and science attentive individuals to help improve this article and the EoE by clicking here EDIT CITE EMAIL PRINT NCSE Boston University M1 Digital UniverseUnless otherwise noted, all text is available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike license. Privacy Policy | Terms of Use | Neutrality Policy Supported by the Environmental Information Coalition and the National Council for Science and the Environment. Unless otherwise noted, all text is available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike license. Please see the Encyclopedia of Earth's website for Terms of Use information. Supported by the Environmental Information Coalition and the National Council for Science and the Environment. [pic][pic]

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Blind Date Script Essay Far From The Madding Crowd Blind Date Script. Graham: Its Blind Date! And here is your host, Miss Cilla Black! Cilla: Hello ladies and gentlemen, and welcome to Blind Date. In a moment well be meeting the lucky lady who gets to pick from one of these gorgeous guys! So, lets meet the boys! So, hello number 1; whats your name and where do you come from? Bo: Good Evening, Cilla. My name is William Boldwood, and I am from Weatherbury. C: Nice to meet you, William. So tell everyone a bit about yourself. Bo: Well, Cilla, I am a 42 year old bachelor, I own a large farm, and. Im incredibly wealthy! C: And, I understand, correct me if Im wrong love, that you have had a nasty experience involving a Valentines card? Bo: That is correct, Cilla. I once received a Valentines card through in the mail, and I had no idea who the sender was. I was a little afraid, you see, it could have been anything. So, I erm, placed it on my mantelpiece. Well, then I couldnt stop thinking of it, so I stared at it for quite some time. C: How long for, love? Bo: For a matter of days, Cilla. C: Oh dear. Well I for one am always scared when the postman comes, I mean, when them bills get posted through my door I know Im too terrified to open them for a week! C: Alright love, well, best of luck tonight, and please dont be scared of the date cards if youre picked cause weve only got so long, you know. Okay, number two, whats your name and where do you come from? T: Hello, Cilla, my love, my names Frank Troy and Im from Weatherbury too! C: Hiya Frank. Tell us all a bit about yourself, love. T: Well, Im 31, Im a Sergeant in the Army, so I travel a lot, and I enjoy sword fighting, so I spend a lot of my spare time practising that, and, Im quite skilled if I may say so myself. C: Oh really? Come on, then. Show us some moves! (Troy shows off with sword techniques). C: Wow, I wouldnt want to be on the receiving end of that lot! Eh, thanks very much love, well done. Best of luck tonight, but if you win, leave the sword at home, wont you? Hello number three, whats your name and where do you come from? O: Eh Cilla, me names Gabriel Oak an I be from Weatherbury as well. C: Hiya, chuck, why dont you tell everyone a bit about yourself? O: Well, Im 28 an I work on a farm in Weatherbury, Cilla. C: And I heard that you used to own your own farm, is that right? O: Ay, that be correct, Cilla, I used to ave some lovely little sheepies, but, sadly, most of em died in a tragic accident. C: Awwwwww (Sympathy) O: Yer, so maybe, even though I dont ave a lot, shell still be willing to ave me. Then Ill know she be genuine an all that. An it could get me a few sympathy votes as well, But I wont let on until after the show, just in case. C: A man with a plan! Well, you probably wont even need to use the sheep story Gabriel, Im sure youll be fine. And may the best fella win. Good luck to all of you. Now, guys and girls, lets meet the lucky lady who gets her pick of one of these gorgeous guys! (Bathsheba enters) C: Hello love, and you are Bathsheba, is that right? B: Yes Cilla, thats right. C: And where are you from, Bathsheba love? B: Im from Weatherbury Cilla. C: Oh I didnt see that one coming. Now, what sort of thing are you looking for, and hoping to find tonight in one of our top-class bachelors? B: Well, Im looking for someone who will flatter me but also stand up to me. Im very independent. C: Oh, thats right, you own a farm, dont you? B: I do indeed, Cilla. C: Well, lets hope those three blokes over there stand up to you more than your farm animals do. And lets hope they smell better an all. B: well I wont know until the date, but lets hope so. C: Alright love. Lets get on with your three questions then. Fire away! B: Hello boys! ALL: Hello Bathsheba! B: Okay, my first question is; If I was an animal, I would be a tiger, because I could definitely use a little taming. If you were an animal, what would you be, and why? That goes to number 1, please. Bo: Well, Bathsheba, I would be a snake, a boa constrictor, so I would be able to wrap myself around you, and squeeze you as tight as I can. B: And to number 2, please. T: Well, I would be a fox, most obviously because of my red coat, but also because I hunt my prey and always get what I want. B: And, lastly, to number 3, please. O: Well, I would probably be a sheep, because, apart from being cute n cuddly, I would follow you round as a sheep does and always be with you. B: Okay, 2nd question. If I were a type of food, I would be a curry, because I am hot and spicy! What food would you be, and why? That is to number 2, please. T: Well, I would be Egg and Soldiers, so you could have a dip in me anytime! B: And to number 3, please. O: Okay, if I was a food, I would be Shepherds Pie, because I be a shepherd, and I be warm, tasty and simple. So, heat me up, and itll be dinner for two. B: And lastly, to number 1, please. Bo: If I was a sort of food, I would most certainly be Toad in the hole, because once you dig down to my deep centre and kiss the toad, I would be your handsome prince. B: And my last question is; I am a woman who likes to be pampered and showered with gifts. If you could give me one thing, what would it be and why? To number 3, please. O: Well, I dont ave a lot, you see, but I would give you my heart of gold, because that be all I wantin in return. B: And to number 1, please. Bo: I would give you anything you want, anything your heart desires. And the greatest gift any woman could wish for ME! B: And last but not least, to number 2, please. T: I would give you the sheath to my prized possession, my sword, because then I would be allowed to put my things inside yours. C: Oh well, Bathsheba, thats all your questions. But dont make your mind up yet, heres a bit of help from Our Graham! G: So Bathsheba, will it be Toady number 1, who will give you himself and squeeze you tightly, just dont send him any mail! Or, will it be foxy number 2, who likes nothing better than putting on his Soldier coat and doing sword tricks just keep the toast away from his yolk. Or, will you decide on warm and simple number 3, and if on your date his sheepy antics get on your nerves, you could always sell that gold heart he gave you. THE DECISION IS YOURS! C: So who will it be love 1, 2 or 3? B: Im going to have to go with number 3, Cilla. C: Oh, but what about the two you turned down? (introduces Troy, then Boldwood they leave) C: So here is your Blind Date, you picked number one, that was Gabriel Oak from Weatherbury come in Gabriel! (Gabriel and Bathsheba meet) C: Alright, are you pleased? (Both nod). Okay then, lets pick a date! Which one will be picking? O: Ill let the lovely lady here pick. (Bathsheba picks) B: A sightseeing trip to London! (Hands envelope to Cilla) C: It says here that the two of you will be seeing all the sights of the Famous London! Have either of you been there before? (both say no). Good. Then after that, youll be shopping til you drop and then staying in a luxury hotel! It says here lets hope that the two of you arent calling each other pigs by the end of the week! Okay, lets have a round of applause for Bathsheba and Gabriel!

Business overview of McDonalds and analysis

Business overview of McDonalds and analysis The UK fast food market is worth an estimated  £7.82 billion annually (Keynote, 2003), amounting to an average spend  £20/month per adult (Mcdonald, 2003). Due to busier consumer lifestyles and dual working families with children emphasis is increasingly being placed on quick meal solutions (Atkins and Bowler, 2001). This has resulted in a market growth of 19% in fast food since 1998. As the business has spread globally; giant fast food companies adapted their business strategy as well. It has invested money on research and development to strengthen their managing policies. Recently many researchers have shown interest regarding implementing change in management system of the fast food industry. They have carried out numerous observations to illuminate the darkness of this field. As the literature review helps to frame the initial focus of the study, well as to focus the data analysis (Swanson Holton1997). It also helps researchers to limit the scope of their inquiry and acts as a benchmark for comparison purposes. In this literature review, their findings and suggestions are sincerely considered for further steps of the research. According to Creswell (2003) literature reviews provide a framework for establishing the importance of the study. 2.1 An overview of McDonalds In the world of globalisation the fast food business is the most dynamic and growth orientated business. McDonalds is one of the most thriving global restaurant chains around the world. McDonalds have used effective global expansion strategies to enter new markets and gain a share of the foreign fast food market. Now McDonalds is a global scale brand. Since the start of the company in 1973, McDonalds Corporation began spreading domestically throughout the United States thus establishing its brand recognition. Its initial strategy began by advertising directly to the middle and upper class citizens, as can be seen in countries such as India and China. To meet the challenge and maintain the success McDonalds has, they had adopt may changes in their strategy, management, and operation process. The focus of the research is to reveal the elements of resistance in the current change management system both in practice and theory in MacDonalds. This chapter is organized according to the various components of resistance to change and reducing resistance with the help of human resource strategies of the organization. In England first McDonald was opened 1974 at Woolwich Southeast Station. In 35 years 1250 restaurants have reached by end of 2005 most of the traditional high streets, shopping centres, retail parks, roadside locations, leisure centres, railway and airport terminal and motorway service areas (Official website). They have different types of store like 24hrs, take away only, super store in Retail Park. There is no particular up-to-date information about how many superstore, take-a-way or airport as well as franchise restaurant in London or in specific area in UK. May be this information is only for top level management, not available for general people. New store is open every year, also some store has been relocated or even close for business policy. MacDonalds also spread its franchise business all over the world mainly in Asia. Asia is very attractive business market for McDonalds. Its now common to see MacDonalds drive to logo in many Asian major cities. Recession is also affecting the fast food industry but this situation is improving day by day. Many new menus are including attracting more customers. MacDonalds also develop policy for healthy fast food policy so campaigners cannot blame them continuously which influence general public to have MacDonalds food. 2.2. Change McDonalds has adopted many strategic and operational changes during its business cycle .Organizational theorists like Drucker (1995) stated change is a constant in all contexts. Change can be defined from an organizational development perspective. Pendlebury, J. et al (1998) demonstrated change as troublesome to organizations, and it is quite disruptive to the individual. The effect of change on individuals is significant. In many respects, it is the emotional dimension of resistance that must be managed throughout the life of the change event. Vigorous emotions can be removed through the process of change within organizations. In fact, scholars argue that every act or event of change will draw some type of resistance resistance that will clear itself in emotions such as fear and anger, denial, avoidance, and resistance. Change can be so disturbing that even individuals directly unaffected by a change initiative can be affected through survivor guilt. According to Noer (1997) survivor guilt or sickness may be experienced by individuals indirectly affected by change and may serve as a significant source of resistance for individuals. 2.2.1. Forces of change Change depends on two forces, which could be external and internal forces. If managers, employees or organisations think about these forces, than they can implement on change successfully. The forces for change are: Internal Forces Human resource prospects (Unmet needs, Job dissatisfaction, Absenteeism and staff turnover Productivity Participation) Managerial decisions. Managerial decisions (Conflict, Leadership, Reward system, Structural reorganisation) the needs for the change. (Bullens, et al 2006). External Forces Change is initiated via external sources such as cultural and political factors. In short, additional external factors like globalizing markets, technology, politics, and communications are all sources of change (Nadler, 1997). Social Change There is lots of pressure from many health concern organisations, doctors association, consumer association even government health institution for the food type and food value of McDonalds restaurant. Many scientific statistics has been published on different media about the quality and nutrition value of Macs food. Even UN organisation W.H.O (World Health Organisation) also comments negatively against fast food. Macs mainly targeted customers are children and teenagers rather professional and elderly people. McDonalds always face different social challenge from internal as well as external sources. But they try to maintain highest possible hygiene and safe way to make and serve the food as well as plan to mention the food values for each item which help all the consumers to know the nutrition value of the food. Technological Change Technological change in the organisation is critical, for three primary reasons. 1- Competitors use technology as part of major success strategies. 2- Technology driven is everywhere and always present. 3- Value capture from new technology is challenging and never guaranteed. Source: Ettlie,J (2000) Most of the time, we hold technology as a constant, because its convenient. The more change in technology of products, services, and operations, the more change in administrative procedures, new strategies, new organisational structures, and new operating procedures will be required to successfully capture the potential benefits of the venture. The failure of technological change typically occurs when either too much technology is adopted too quickly or not enough technology is adopted to stay ahead of competitors. Nadler (1997) argue strongly for the case of new technologies and new markets. Jick (1995) identifies competition and the aspirations to gain and maintain competitive advantage a key Impetus for change. Economical Change McDonalds has the tendency to experience hardship in instances where the economy of the country is hit by inflation and changes in the exchange rates. **The current recession also put them struggling. The high store maintenance cost in major cities like London, New York, Tokyo etc. is very expensive. For the recession people try to eat home to save money even MacDonalds offers food is the cheapest than other competitors. The low sales impact on store profit which also related to all kind of necessary expenditure. Another factor is the maintaining the food preparation and service standard for MacDonalds food which is prime concern for them to establish the hygiene and safety issue for the people health. If MacDonalds charge high price of their food to maintain store standard they will definitely loose target customer and most valuable reputation. Still they are in market leader position. Economical chance has great influence on MacDonalds business. Political Change Government can implement some bindings on the advertisement of McDonalds because of the high cholesterol, obesity and some other health problem. They also control the licence as we mentioned earlier in social change that MacDonalds have many legal bindings from different level of government and non-government organisation. Political change of a country has also affect MacDonalds business. As health issue is one of the prime concerns of the respective government, if any political change occurs the health policy can also change. The very practical example in UK conservative government will change the health policy of the previous labour government. MacDonalds must track the relevant information by which their business can be affected. In other case marketing can also affected by political change. Sometimes, social crisis influence to raise the public issue politically. Like obesity in the western world is an important discussion topic in heath area. Government regulates the advertising to focus this concern so that people awareness will increases about the obesity. MacDonalds must accommodate with this policy in all its marketing campaigns. Culture Culture examines societys values, norms, believes, symbols. Organisational culture, is the concept to analyse that the organisation can be very useful for focusing on the more behavioural and attitudinal aspects of the organisational life. Organisational culture is the social aspects of our employing organisations. Scheins (1985) developed the following typology for cultural analysis The organisations relationship to its environment (belief that relate to the broader environment) The nature of the human activity (beliefs about what the core activity of the business should be) The nature of the reality and truth The nature of human nature (beliefs about what people are like) The nature of human relationships (beliefs are about how people should relate to one another both hierarchically and horizontally) Homogeneity versus diversity (beliefs about similar or diverse the workforce should be) (Ellis Dick 2003). According to Schein (2004) culture change certainly involves unlearning as well as relearning and is therefore, by definition, transformative thus: Schein (2004) also suggested learning leaders must be well connected to those parts of the organization that are themselves well connected to the environment-the sales organization, purchasing, marketing, public relations, legal, finance, and RD must be able to listen to disconfirming information coming from these sources and to assess the implications for the future of the organization. The Wider Environment Social Values Demographics Task Environment Customers and markets Economy Technology Suppliers of Inputs Competitors For markets For resources Regulatory groups The Firm Process Factor What is done (task) How things are done (technology) People factors Workforce diversity Workforce Behaviour Figure 2.1: Triggers to change. Corlett,Forster, (2004), 2.3. Theories of change management There are many change models that are used to aid experts in implementing change. These models can be broken down into two types of change theories that organizations can use: radical and incremental. Within each of these approaches there are various models and processes. 2.3.1 Radical vs Incremental change Radical change approaches include, but are not limited to, six sigma, quality function deployment, and re-engineering. Radical change models are used to jump-start an organization and are also used when a culture change is required. In 1994, Dyer explain radical change , In a conventionally Midwestern family business atmosphere, change is likely to be more heavily resisted than in other organizations because the feelings adjacent to the change tend to be deeper and more intense, and previous research shows that family values, goals, and relations deeply influence strategic change in family-oriented firms . A review of the literature Senge (1990) reflects the need for organizations to be able to continuously adjust as well as to allow for learning to take place. Incremental change approaches include, but are not limited to, Kurt Lewins model, Beckhards change model, Kotters transformation model, and the Bridges transition model. Incremental change models are related with improving the existing system and operate within the current business model. All these models have a stage of unfreezing of the current behavior, a change being introduced, and a stage of refreezing the new behavior, or else they begin with the identification of the current state, the desired state, and the blocks and barriers that exist between the two. Cummings and Worley, (2001) state that Kurt Lewins three-stage change model is the root of change management. Lewins change model consisting of the following steps: 1) unfreezing the old behaviour (or situation), 2) moving to a new level of behaviour, and 3) refreezing, the behaviour at the new level. Lewin viewed the change process as a fundamental alteration or change in the forces that kept a system in stasis. According to Lewin, an organization will go through the process of making preparations for change, developing the force for change, implementing change, and then will strive to re-establish stability or reach stasis. Unfreeze Change Refreeze Figure 2.2 Kurt Lewins three-stage change model of change. Adopted from Cummings and Worley, (2001) According to Van de Ven and Poole (1995) Organizational change is an empirical observation in an organizational entity of variations in shape, quality or state over time. Kaestle (1990) states in A New Rationale for Organizational Structure, that there are fundamentally two drivers for organizational change: 1) a dynamic marketplace and, 2) information technology. 2.3.2 Conditions for change According to Kotter (1996) certain conditions need to be met in order to bring about effective change. These conditions on what is known to contribute to the failure of change efforts. 2.3.3 People involved in change Kotter also states that producing change is about 80% leadership (establishing direction, aligning, and motivating and inspiring people) and about 20% management (planning, budgeting, organizing, and problem-solving). In most change efforts he has studied, the percentages have been reversed. While there are some examples of successful change efforts, so leadership or management works as a change agent within the organization. According to Vago (1999) in a planned change effort, change agents are professionals who influence and implement the change; they are critical to the success of a change effort. Recent studies indicate that static change models are being replaced with dynamic change models that reflect the discontinuous nature of organizational change. In other words, change does not occur at a steady rate even though in the past organizational theory has written about steady or static models. 2.3.4 People in change Schein (2004) also suggested learning leaders must be well connected to those parts of the organization that are themselves well connected to the environment-the sales organization, purchasing, marketing, public relations, legal, finance, and RD must be able to listen to disconfirming information coming from these sources and to assess the implications for the future of the organization. 2.3.5. The modern version of Lewins theory Neito (2006) described the graceful tools of Lewins theory is the critical analysis if it is to be helpful to HR professionals. To start by means of, it is affective and how easy to get the agreement of employees regarding a change process. Even though if the change is important, but people will not accept the change easily, thats way the first stage Unfreezing takes more time rather than other stages. Next process is Change, this process will be by itself, but this process should be managed properly. If this process is managed properly there are incentives and benefits (easy wins) during the change process, end of the day this process will give the positive support. Finally, the last stage is Refreezing which is a process of that stabilizes the change, which has been done. Human resource strategies are influenced by external and internal factors. Change successful depends on the concern and growth on the employee relations and interpersonal relationships. Human resource professionals should consider the change processes are likely to meet resistance and that is more efficient to consult with staff and expand teamwork than to oblige changes. Present workers should therefore invest in special development to enhance their long term employability.(Neito,M 2006) To understand the process and the nature of change in the organization, it is important to understand how organization works in the complex environment of external and internal forces. According to Hayes. J (2007) open structure theory predicts that changes to any one of the internal and external elements of an organisations will source changes to other fundamentals. Hayes. J (2007) adopts from Kotter (1980) the integrative model of organisational dynamics. Recent theorists have considered change according to developmental change, transitional change, and transformational change (Anderson Ackerman-Anderson, 2001). The six main elements in Kotters model are: External environment, based on the direct task related environment and the wider environment (which includes the political system, economical system etc). Employees and other tangible assets, as well as building cash and all other stuff and inventories. Formal organisational arrangements which system is operating and job design Social system, which is based on organisations culture and social structure. Technology is the main product of the organisation. Dominant coalition Goals, strategies of those who control to make the plane. According to Hayes.J (2007) adaptability is very important because it determines whether the organisation will be able or not to maintain the require degree of alignment over the long period. For the long period, the main purpose of change management needs to be ensuring, that the structural basics of the organisation are as adaptable. Key organisational processes Information gathering Communication Decision making Matter energy transportation Matter energy conversion Formal organisational Dominant coalition External environment Technology, methods Social system culture Employees and tangibleaaaa assets Source of potential behaviour and constraint Impact on Figure: 2.4 Source: Hayes,J.(2007) The theory and Practice of Change Management ,2nd ed, p-47, palgrave Macmillan. 2.3.6. Force Field Tool Force Field Tool is the pioneer tool for change management; the tool was developed by Kurt Lewin. Schein (2002) explain Kurt Lewin tool, how change is influenced by two opposing factors driving and restraining forces that work against each other to sustain a state of stability .At the same time as driving forces uphold change, restraining forces resist the driving forces and thus hold back change. When these forces are balanced, a state of quasi-stationary equilibrium is achieved. Equilibrium Driving forces ( Restraining forces Figure2.3: Lewins Force Field Theory The term quasi-stationary equilibrium was used by Schein (2002) to describe the stable routine of day-to-day activity, rather than just equilibrium which implies a state of rest . According to Schein (2002) Any living system is always in a state of some change (growth, metamorphosis, or decline), but all systems are homeostatic in that they always tend toward some kind of equilibrium (p. 35). To explain the quasi-stationary state, Lewin used the analogy of a river flowing at the same velocity and direction over time. Although the river is not at rest, it flows consistently at the same rate and thus is stable. A shift in velocity or direction, however, would constitute a change. To bring about change, either driving forces need to be added or restraining forces must be diminished. According to Schein (2002) adding more driving forces is likely to be paralleled by higher aggressiveness, higher emotionality, and lower constructiveness than if restraining forces were reduced; therefore, the latter is a more desirable course of action. In addition, adding driving forces is likely to result in new restraining forces as people try to maintain a state of quasi-stationary equilibrium. In this study, force field theory provided the theoretical framework for the variable of resistance to change in that it posited the tendency for groups to maintain a state of stability with restraining forces (i.e. resistance) resulting when driving forces that promote change are introduced. 2.3.7. A congruence model of organisations A substitute open system model, planned by Nadler and Tushman (1982) point out the effect of the congruency of the elements of the organisation, and shows the effectiveness on the organisation. Additionally, it puts more pressure, on the role of strategy, because any organisation based on the strategy as well. Congruence model depends on the four classes of input: Environment: Environment as well as based on wider culture, within which the organisation operates, thats the backbone of the organisation. Environment is a part of financial institutions, supplies, markets and it is the overall system of the organisation, which is based on the external and internal environment of the organisation. Environment provides the strength and opportunities that the organisation has to compete with. Resources: Resources like as raw material, liquid capital, labour, technologies. History: History is very important for the organisation, because past strategic decisions and development of central part values and patterns of leadership can affect the present model of organisation. Strategy: This input gives the direction how the organisations resources can be used to be the advantage in relation to the opportunities, and demands of the environment. Successful organisations are those that are able to support themselves with the help of external environment and move themselves to take advantage of any environmental changes. Nadler and Tushman (1982) argue that strategy defines the task of the organisation. Strategy is effective to the organisations behavioural system. They recommend that the goals of strategy measure the organisations performance. Nadler and Tushman(1982) define the major components of the transformation process as: a- Task, can be viewed in terms of obstacle, predictability, interdependence a skill demands. b- Individuals, those are the members of the organisation and their reaction capabilities, intelligence, experience, training, skills, attitudes, expectations etc. c- Formal organisational performance that include all the mechanisms used by the organisation to direct, control behaviour or formation. d- Informal organisation, as well as informal group structures, the quality of inter-group relations, political processes, etc. Transformation process x Informal organisation Individual Task Formal organisation Organisation Group, Individual Environment Resources, History Inputs Outputs Strategy Feedback Figure: 2.5 Source: Hayes,J.(2007) The theory and Practice of Change Management 2nd ed, p-52,palgrave Macmillan. Like Kotter, Nadler and Tushman argue that any useful model of organisations must go beyond only providing a simple sketch of the tools of the organisation and consider the dynamic relationships that exist between the various tools. They define congruence as the degree to those the needs, goals, objectives and structures of any one tool of the organisation are reliable with the needs. Their general theory is that, other things equal, the greater the total degree of congruence between the different tools the more efficient will be the organisations behaviour. Figure 2.5 summarises the congruence model and the bold double headed arrows specify the six fits between the components of the transformation process (the internal organisation) These are: (a) Individual Formal organisations for example to what extents are individual needs met by the formal organisational arrangements? (b) Individual Task for example, to what extent do individuals have the skills required to meet task demands and to what extent do the tasks satisfy individual needs? (c) Individual informal organisation for example, to what extent does the informal organisation satisfy the needs of individuals or make best use of their talents? (d) Task formal organisation for example, to what level are the formal organisational arrangements enough to meet the demands of the task? (e) Task informal organisation for example, to what point does the informal organisation make sure to task performance? (f) Formal informal organisation for example, to what level are the goals, rewards and structures of the informal organisation reliable with those of the formal organisation? Mostly tools that Nadler and Tushman desire to focus on are different to those that figure in kotters model. All models are overview of the real world, and the usefulness of the particular model, in the context of the change management. Schneider state in the book of john Hayes, Internal and external alignment promotes organisational effectiveness because the various elements of the system strengthen rather than upset each other, thereby minimising the loss of system energy and resources. 2.4. Defining resistance to change Resistance to change is not rigorously related to organizations management and leadership. It is a problem embedded in the very nature of its organizational members. In any case, resistance to change is a significant factor that must be understood in the organizational context. Examples of resistance may include, refusal to work, riots (in extreme cases). On the other hand the employees can demonstrate contentment with change, a happier performance at work and a general consensus that the change was beneficial to the restaurant. Individuals can arrive at a psychological state where major change can no longer be absorbed. According to psychologists, change can trigger emotional experiences such as depression, mania, irritability, anger, disturbing or obsessive thoughts. According to Conner (1998) the main sources of individual resistance to change are: lack of trust, commitment to the status quo, belief that the change is not feasible, economic threats, relative high costs, loss of status and power, and threats to values and ideals. Tushman and OReilly (1997), state that despite the inevitability of change and its necessity for survival, it presents serious dilemmas to anyone serious about the notion of change. Change is disruptive to organizations. That is undeniable. Change is not helpful to an environment of stability; it precipitates more and more disruption wooing business leaders to a critical deadlock. One cannot have both stability and change; they are conflicting forces. Pascal, R et el (1997), state, findings from surveys confirm that executives have begun to give renewal a high priorityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.however, most of their efforts to achieve it have met with frustration partly because large organizations have such a remarkable capacity to resist change of all kinds. 2.4.1. Sources of resistance in the implementation stage According to Klein and Sorra (1996) implementation of any change in the organization is the significant step between the decision to change and the regular use of it at the organization. In implementation stage more resistance groups can be found. The main resistance is with political and cultural locks to change. It consists of: Implementation climate and relation between change values and organizational values, considering that a strong implementation climate when the values relation is negative will result in resistance and opposition to change and forgetfulness of the social dimension of changes ( Schalk et al., 1998). Last but not least, a set of five sources of resistance with different characteristics are according to Rumelt (1995): leadership inaction, sometimes because leaders are afraid of uncertainty, sometimes for fear of changing the status quo ;embedded routines ;collective action problems, specially dealing with the difficulty to decide who is going to move first or how to deal with free-extruders ,ask of the necessary capabilities to implement change capabilities gap and cynicism. 2.4.2. Sources of resistance in the formulation stage of change To understand resistance in the process of change in any organization, we need to focuses on the very fast formulation stage of change. It includes: inability of the company to look into the future with clarity. According to Morrison and Milliken (2000) organizational silence, which limits the information flow with individuals who do not express their thoughts, meaning that decisions are made without all the necessary information. Denial or refusal to accept any information that is not expected or desired ( Rumelt, 1995). Low motivation for change, sources are: Direct costs of change, is the cost of change that brings success to a product but at the same time brings losses to others, so it requires some sort of sacrifice. According to Rumelt (1995) the need for a change is compensated through the high rents obtained without change with another different factor, so that there is no real motivation for change. According to Lorenzo (2000) past failures, leave a pessimistic image for future changes. Waddell and Sohal (1998) identified different interests among employees and management, or lack of motivation of employees who value change results less than managers value them). 2.5. Kotter and Schlesingers Choosing Strategies Choosing Strategies for Change an article of Kotter and Schlesingers (1979) explain causes for resistance to change. Organizations frequently experience employees resistance when change is introduced.